Events Planning and Management Essay

What is an EventSpecial or spectacular occasions where people gather together for a purpose whether they be to celebrate, educate, promote or commemorate. They are not the usual and ordinary activities that one engages in as part of his daily life Who is an Event PlannerAn event planner is, quite simply someone who organizes events. He is the person behind the scenes who gets the job done and make sure everything is done and done flawlessly to ensure successful staging of the event. He must be well versed and trained on the communication and organization aspects and requirements of the job. Event planners usually get their start doing, supplying or providing services in one or two particular aspect of an special events such as catering, floral arranging, entertaining and talent agents eg before they decide to plan entire events. Or they may also have started planning and coordinating events for companies they were employed with before deciding to go into the business for themselves Since events may vary in size, scope and complexity, it may require an event planner to do any number of different task but all with the end result of achieving a successful event Categories of EventsSocial Events- more on a local level, attendees are usually related and/or know each other on a more personal level. Care and caution must be taken as the event planner may find himself in the storm of a family event , as emotions often run high on these special occasions. Make sure everyone knows their role and exactly what’s expected of them. List of common social events: weddings, reunions, housewarming/blessings/holiday parties and dinners/birthday parties/bar or bat mitzvahs/baby showers/anniversary parties/bridal showers/stag parties, et al. Corporate Events- the term â€Å"corporate† includes not only companies but also charities and nonprofit organizations. Charities and nonprofit organizations host gala fundraisers, receptions and athletic competitions, among other events, to expand their public support base and raise funds. Companies host trade shows, conventions, company outings, holiday parties and meetings for their employees, staff, board members and stock holders. Some types of corporate events: Annual shareholder meetings, board meetings, client appreciation events, company socials (such as holiday parties, intramurals and sports events, company outings), groundbreaking ceremonies, incentive travel, open houses, new product launch, press briefings, staff training, union events/meetings et al Industry Events – Industry events today are sophisticated affairs designed to inform, influence and form consensus on a specific issue or common topic. Industry specific events include: Conventions, association meetings, conferences, industry tradeshows, public exhibitions(bridal fairs, auto shows, home shows), symposiums et al Special Events – The term â€Å"special events† can describe a broad range of affairs which are big, national or local in scope such as major sporting events (palarong pambansa), major public events (EDSA Day celebration), major cultural and religious affairs ( Baguio mayflower festival, dinagyang, ati-atihan, sinulog festival), However special events may also be much smaller, specific and more private in scope. List of special events include the following: Award events, book launching, signing/author reading, CD release parties, charity fund raisers, children’s festival, ethnic celebrations, fashion shows, holiday special events, inauguration ball, music festival, parades, political forums or debates, restaurant openings, sporting event-car races, store grand openings STEPS IN EVENTS PLANNING 1. Client Consultation Whether you have your own event planning business or work full time planning events for one company you will work with clients. As a corporate events planner your internal clients will be other departments (HRD, Marketing, Operations etc). on the other hand if you are doing events planning independently you will be dealing with company representatives or in some cases the company officials themselves. In each case consultation will be of primary importance as these will determine the direction, objective and purpose and vision of the event. At the initial meeting do more listening than talking, pay careful attention to everything the client says, make notes or record the meeting(with clients permission), bring an assistant to make notes for you. When its your turn, ask the client to describe their vision for the event. Then from broad ideas, you will refine the vision as you move through the planning process. Questions such as those below will help the events planner to begin to visualize the event and serve as the foundation for all the work to come. Things to discus with the client: What kind of event do you want What do you hope to accomplish When is the event to be held Who are expected to attend What is the budget At the end of the consultation you should have a clear picture of what your client envisions for their event and be able to form a clear, concise â€Å"mission statement† or objective. Other things to discus: who will be involved in the planning process, who will be the key decision makers, and how information should flow during the planning stage. This is precisely to anticipate and eliminate possible roadblocks as you can before you reach them since as the events planner it is your responsibility to take charge of planning. After the initial meeting and while it is still fresh on the mind of both parties (planner and client) summarize the discussion in writing and send a copy to the client if possible on the same day or soon after. 2. Set Objectives The best and most successful events have a clear purpose or objective. Event planners can avail of the SMART method for setting strategic objectives: Specific- What is the specific result of you event Measurable- Outcome should be measurable accurately Attainable- Given the existing budget and resources and constraint, is the objective attainable Relevant- Do the people involved have the authority, the skill and the resources needed to meet the objective? Is the objective important to the organization or individual? Time- Based- Is there a start and end point to the objective? Setting smart objectives will not only make the planning easier but will help measure the success of the event and create a positive experience for all involved. 3. Choose a Date and a Location At this planning stage, preferred date should be decided upon. Client will often but not always come with a date in mind for the event. If they don’t, it will be your job to help pick a suitable date. But whether you do the setting of the date or not you need to consider the following before choosing the date or accepting the client. Things to consider when choosing a date: Consider your availability Consider other events in the area Consider the season and usual weather in the chosen location Consider your suppliers Consider other related events Consider other holidays Consider your time needs 4. Decide Who to Invite Your client needs to give you an idea of who they want to attend their event before you can begin to formulate a plan to attract the target audience or plan activities. The following data or information are required (depending on the type of event) How many people are to be invited Will spouses or children also attend Demographics of the target audience (eg. Gender, median age, ethnic background, income bracket) Common or shared interest What payback does the client expect Where are the attendees coming from (travel arrangement, customs and traditions) 5. Create Your Theme The most memorable events have a cohesive theme that runs through-out, from initial publicity to printed invitations to decor and right through to the entertainment and final applause. One of the biggest advantages of a strong theme is its usefulness in helping you make decisions throughout the event process. Once a theme has been decided on, print materials such as invitations, banners, place cards, brochures, advertising and websites can be designed. Where to get ideas for a great theme Brainstorm Events Industry Current Events and Trends Adding a Musical Touch 6. Set the Event Agenda After the date, guest list, the theme and setting of the smart objectives , its time to set the agenda for the event. Whether its a simple house blessing or a three day corporate event, its important to layout the entire schedule. Include adequate time for arrival, socializing, speeches, awards/games, food, etc. â€Å"Visualize† the event and run through the entire program from start to finish. Make notes of all you might need such as materials, services, special arrangements, eg. Create a list of vendors and suppliers to contact and task to be done. GETTING ORGANIZED As an event planner, you will need a variety of organizational tools that will help you keep track of all the many details involved in organizing the event and ensuring an orderly and systematic execution of plans aimed towards making the event successful 1. Establish an Event Committee Although it is a given that you will do all the planning and planning of the event yourself, in most cases, you will work with a group of people who are expected to make the event successful Choose a select group of key people to form an Events Committee Assign specific task to each committee member Regular committee meeting Document everything 2. Create a Timeline Schedule Base your timeline on factors such as The size of the event The location The time of year The number of people involved in the planning Develop an outline of specific tasks, deadlines and responsibilities 3. Adding Detail As you start developing your checklist, add as much detail as possible for each item. For example under the â€Å"Assigned tasks for day of event† list the specific task that needs to be assigned such driving to airport pick up, supervising set up, leading briefing sessions with speakers, seating, greeting, supervising set up of luncheon, etc. Once you have develop the checklist, assign target dates to each item, It is a good idea to work backwards from your event date 4. Critical Path ( Assignment of Task) A critical path lists each of the tasks that needs to be accomplished; who is responsible for it and the deadline by which it will be done. It is used as a guide map for the event to assist when delegating responsibilities and show whether you are on track. 5. Budgets Creating a budget is an important ingredient in a successful event. Once you have created a timeline schedule and critical path, you can come up with a list of estimated expenses such as venue rental, food, transportation, accommodations, audio-visual equipment, printed materials and gifts. Get price quotations from your suppliers to find out how much a particular item costs You will also need to include your own fee and corporate clients may want to include any staff time they spend on the event as an expense. When planning a budget, include your potential revenue to offset the cost. For example, is the event a fundraiser? Is it a conference or convention that should aim to cover its own expenses? Attendance fees, sales of related materials, donations, ticket sales and sponsorships can all be good ways to raise revenues. After the event you should compare actual expenses and revenues to your budgeted amounts. This will help you determine if your objectives were met and it may assist in budgeting for future events. PREPARATION TIME FOR VARIOUS EVENTS TIMELINE SCHEDULE EVENT TYPE Recommended Preparation Time Wedding 3-6 months Parties (birthdays/anniversaries/debut) 1-3 months Seminars/Meetings 1-3 months Conference / Convention ~ Domestic ~ International 6months – 1year 1-2years Organized Tours / Field Trips 1-3 months Concerts 6months and above Festivals 6month-1year Exhibitions / Expositions ~ Domestic ~ International 6months-1year 1-2years Sales Bazaar (â€Å"tiange†, night market) 6months Competition / Contests 6months-1year Sport Festivals 6months-1year SAMPLE TIME ALLOCATION (More Than A Year Pre-planning Activity) Activity Period Announcement date & location 52weeks before the event First press date 24-36weeks Publication 24th week Mailing of brochures 14-18th week Mailing of 2nd reminder 14th week Mailing of final reminder 8-12th week Mailing of final program 2-6 weeks Sample Budget Groundbreaking Ceremony Estimated Expenses Groundbreaking Site Tent 1,200. 00 Chairs600. 00 Banner600. 00 Podium Sign150. 00 Lights150. 00 Flowers600. 00 Shovels200. 00 Subtotal 3, 500. 00 Luncheon Expenses Lunch 12,000. 00 Rental of Civic Center 1,500. 00 Floral centerpieces600. 00 Gifts for dignitaries (6plaques) 2,000. 00 Gifts for guests (60 mini shovels) 1,600. 00 Information kit folders 1,500. 00 Printing of Fact Sheet 650. 00 Podium Sign 150. 00 Subtotal20, 000. 00 Other Expenses Services of Event Planner 10,000. 00 Long distance / Phone300. 00 Printing of Invitations 1,200. 00 Courier charges for invitations500. 00 Delivery of boxes to site500. 00 Photographer800. 00 Sound system 1,500. 00 Event Planner’s transportation600. 00 Rental of van/minibus 2,500. 00 News release 1,000. 00 Subtotal18,900 . 00 TOTAL ESTIMATED EXPENSES42, 400. 00 (taxes not included) Event Planning Budget Form EXPENSES Estimated Actual Site Venue or tent rental______________________ Tables and chairs______________________ Meals and beverages ______________________ Tableware rental______________________ Staging______________________ Audiovisual equipment______________________ Decorations______________________ Flowers______________________ Other: ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ Program Musicians______________________ Speakers______________________ Celebrities______________________ Entertainers______________________ Gifts______________________ Award______________________ Activities (e. g. golf)______________________ Other: ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ Event Planning Budget Form (continued) EXPENSES Estimated Actual Printing and Promotion Printing invitations______________________ Mailing invitations______________________ Banners and signs ______________________ Printing tickets______________________ Event programs______________________ Name tags______________________ Shipping materials to venue______________________ Advertising______________________ Distribution of news release______________________ Media kits______________________ Long distance telephone______________________ Other: ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ Personnel Event Planner______________________ Staff salaries and benefits______________________ Registration______________________ Photographer______________________ Bartenders______________________ Security staff______________________ Set-up and tear down______________________ Other: ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ Event Planning Budget Form (continued) EXPENSES Estimated Actual Travel Airline tickets______________________ Hotel rooms______________________ Ground transportation ______________________ Other: ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ Other Expenses Registration fees______________________ Ticket sales______________________ Sponsorships______________________ Advertising in event program______________________ Other: ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ REVENUE Estimated Actual Registration fees______________________ Ticket sales______________________ Donations______________________ Sponsorships______________________ Advertising in event program ______________________ Other: ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ COSTING OF A BIRTHDAY EVENT Profile: No. of Persons: 50 Time: 7pm-12mn (5hours) Site: Function Rooms 3 – Globe Telecom Plaza AT COST 1. Venue a. Function room rate †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 2,300. 00 b. Electricity for 5hours†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 500. 00 c. Parking for ingress and egress†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 100. 00 d. Move-in (refundable)†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 1,500. 00 4,400. 00 2. Decor a. Balloons and Arrangement†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 2,500. 00 (free 50balloons/arched shape/2tower) b. Flowers and Arrangement†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 1, 250. 00 (centerpiece for guests tables & buffet table)3,750. 00 3. Invitations & Giveaways a. Invitations (P25. 00 x 50)†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 1,250. 00 b. Angels (70 pcs at P23. 00 each)†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 1,610. 00 2,860. 00 4. Tables and Chairs a. Rent for 6rounds tables†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 270. 00 (for 8persons at 45. 00 each table) b. Rent of chairs (5. 00 x 50)†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 250. 00 c. Rent of buffet table (100. 00 x 5)†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 500. 00 d. Table Napkin (5. 00 x 50)†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 250. 00 e. Chair cover with ribbon (15. 00 x 50) †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 750. 00 2,020. 00 5. Audio Equipment a. Rental†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 5,000. 00 5,000. 00 6. Food (2 appetizers/ 5 courses / 2desserts/ bottomless drinks-tea/ softdrinks) a. Cost Breakdown 250. 00 rate per person 25. 00 10% service fee 275. 00 x 50 persons†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 13,750. 00 13,750. 00 TOTAL 31,780. 00 YOUR COSTS CHECKLIST TYPE OF COST Details Examples FIXED COST Projection Screens, Video projectors, slide projector/OHP, video players(back-up player), preview monitor, LCD for Power point presentation, laser pointer, lectern monitors Sound Speakers, lectern microphones, tie-microphones, CD player, talkback system, mixer cabling, adaptors, music copyright or creation fees Speaker support Design, image production, print proofs, scriptwriting, speaker training, rehearsals Staging Design lecterns, backdrop, steps, dais, furnishings, graphics, carpeting, seating area, special construction, drop banners, room decorations, floor plan, revised lay-outs. Lighting Design, equipment hire, installation, crew, freight and transportation, rigging and de-rigging costs Crew/Staff Get-in crew, on-site crew, De-rigging crew, transportation per diems (allowance for sustenance) for each member, show caller, script assistant, live video crew, lighting director, sound technician, vision technician Fees and Insurance ‘Procedure’s fee, Project fee, contingency for administration cost, equipment insurance Invitations process Cost of advertising, posters, and follow-up activity, flyers, direct mail costs Function Rooms and Contracts VARIABLE COSTS Banqueting Food and Beverages Accommodation Types of accommodations and, inclusions Travel Types of transportations and inclusions Fees Porterage fees, gratuity fees, parking fees, service charges Decors/Giveaways Flowers, candles, souvenir items Insurance Surety bonds, cash bonds, personal accident insurance, travel insurance CONTIGENCY COSTS Contingency for direct costs Contingency for currency fluctuations Peso-dollar exchange rate TYPE OF COST DESCRIPTION LIKELY PERCENTAGE F I X E D C O S T S Production, staging & outside speakers Invitation process, marketing, design Venue Agency fees Signage Security, car parking set-up Cabaret, entertainment Registration costs Utilities (telephone, faxes, e-mail) We weather back-up 35% Production Costs could be as much as 25% of direct costs V A R I A B L E C O S T S Meals, breaks Beverages Accommodation Travel Delegate print Table/room gifts Porterage, car parking per person Late bar drinks Insurance, purchase tax Gratuity Fees 50% CONTINGENCY 10% to cover all contingencies for direct costs Allowance for currency movements (for abroad) 15% TOTAL BUDGET 100% 6. Crisis and Back Up Planning Disasters and crises can range from relatively small (the guest of honor’s plane is delayed due to bad weather) to huge and seemingly insurmountable, like the heavy rains and flooding that tropical storm Ondoy brought in Sept. 2009 . A good event planner will be able to think on his or her feet for the small stuff, and have a solid crisis plan in place for dealing with the biggies. You can’t possibly expect to plan for every type of crisis, but a little advance planning will go along way to ensure that you can handle whatever comes your way. a. Maintenance Emergencies If your event takes place in hotel or convention facility you should discuss emergency plans with the Director of Sales and Maintenance Engineer. They should provide you with a contact at the site who will take care of any emergency or maintenance issues. If your event is being held in a private hall, find out who in their organization is responsible for facility maintenance and ask for someone to be available during your event. In your contact list, keep numbers of 24-hour locksmiths, plumbers and electricians. b. Medical Emergencies When planning a large outdoor festival or sporting event, it is advisable to have first aid personnel on hand for emergencies. Festival-goers may suffer from heat stroke (or hypothermia in a cold location), minor or major cuts, sunburn or food poisoning. It’s a good idea to include in your rental items a tent that can be used to shelter people fro the sun or cold while receiving treatment for minor injuries. Discuss option and get advice from your local ambulance volunteer force or contracted service providers. Be sure to include the local hospital, emergency line and non-emergency police number in your list of contacts. Organizing the Team for the Event Most events are organized through good team (2 or more persons working together) work. It is important that when tasks are allocated within a team the strengths of its members are put to good use. For example, it is no good asking someone to be the secretary who is has little skills in oral communications. The following are the roles that can be adopted in any event: Coordinator Secretary Treasurer Marketing/Promotion **The Number in the Team and their responsibilities will vary according to the scale of the event. It is important that all team members fully understand what their jobs entail and are aware of all the schedules and deadlines that have been agreed. It is much better to have someone in your team who is reliable rather than a â€Å"prima donna† who promises everything and delivers nothing. Planning Contributions to A Team Event Most events are not the result of one person’s work alone. Events are made through the concerted efforts of a group of people or a team who are working for the same general objective ~ to achieve a successful event. Within this team there will be a number of weakness in their areas of work. These skills, strengths and weaknesses should considered carefully when the various jobs within the team are allocated. Each team member will plan their own contribution to the event to be staged. The following details have to be considered: How one’s role in an event can support another’s and can support the objectives of the event How by adopting certain methods the resources available can be used to their maximum benefit What a person should do when something happens and their role does not go to plan Problems that may occur and how they could be handled effectively to try to reduce their impact on the event How staff and customers can be informed promptly and clearly of any changes which may affect them General guidelines for undertaking a role in an event Roles and Responsibilities of the Team The Coordinator (Chairperson) Overseas the Event Liaising with other members of the team Ensures that deadlines are met Raises any problems that may be occurring and finding solutions Chairs meetings of the event committee Ensures that everyone has a fair share of time to raise issues. Voice opinions etc. at meeting discuss issues Makes sure that the agenda for the meeting is covered Resolves any disagreements in the team regarding issues concerning the event through voting The Administrator Deals with correspondence, letters and other forms of communications Produces minutes of committee meetings Assist other members of the team with administrator The Financial Controller (Treasurer) Overseas all financial transactions Records financial transactions Holds the cheque book Sets-up a secure system using money available Produces income/expenditure accounts with receipts and others clearly documented Designs procedures for the secure holding of income before, during and after the event Ensures that the event meets the budget set The Publicity Officer Promotes the event Organizes promotional materials (ads, leaf- lets, brochures, flyers, etc) according to the scale of the event Liaising with outside agencies (eg. Local newspaper companies, radio/TV stations, etc. ) Organizes press coverage of the event The Facility Officer Finds and organizes the venue Organizes special tools and equipment needed in the event such as lighting fixtures, sound system etc Arranges for security Arranges for parking Arranges toilet facilities and waste disposal **Though each team member has his own set of res- ponsibilities, it is imperative that he communicate effectively with the others so that problems (should they arise) can be highlighted and dealt with as effectively as possible. After the Team has been organized, the following details will now be covered: Reason/s for holding the event Objectives to be attained Your target beneficiaries/market Period to hold the event Identifying the best site to hold the event The cost of the event including budget allocation The selling price of the event (per person/ per total package cost) The financial goal of the event ~ To raise money To make a profit To cover costs of the event A time-scale of how different tasks to be planned and implemented The need for good team effort, sticking to budgets and using resources available to their best advantages Efficient uses of communications between members Effective publicity Contingency plans Strategy for dealing with customers A good working environment friendly, support, etc Feedback to all contributions on the outcome of the event 3 PHASES OF EVENT MANAGEMENT 1. Pre~Event Phase (Preparation of Materials) Organization of the Team Venue/Site Selection Food Requirements Equipments & Tools Preparation of Materials Decors/Artwork Communications & Proposal Promotions Schedule of Activities (Program) Costing and Design 2. Actual Event Phase (Implementation & Administrative Stage) Production of Materials Needed for the Event Promotions Rehearsal/ Final Briefing Decorations Registration The Output Security Participant’s Evaluation 3. Post Event Phase (Disposal Stage) Egress Evaluation Profitability of the Event Building your Budget Defining the budget is the first major challenge an event organizer faces as eh plans the event. An experienced organizer will know whether the budget is sufficient to do the job to the standard expected. Depending on the event you are organizing, compile a checklist of all costs that will be incurred in making the event happen. Classify costs accordingly: Fixed Costs Variable Costs Contingency Budget CO-PRENEURS OF AN EVENT ORGANIZER 1. Hotels and Other lodging Facilities 2. Travel Agents/Consultants 3. Caterers/ Food Establishment 4. Airline Companies and Other modes of Transportation 5. Artist 6. Audio/ Visuals Consultants 7. Other events specialist (wedding planner/meeting Planner/tour planner) 8. Entertainers/Talents 9. Professionals and consultants, EVALUATING THE EVENT Evaluation of any event is concerned with the feedback from the event – not just from those who organized or staffed the event but from anyone who played a part in it. This could include: Staff Organizers Clients/Visitors Volunteers Sponsors Officials And other co-preneurs of the event planner When an event is planned the purpose of the event is clearly defined. It is against this that the event should be evaluated. Evaluation does not just take place at the end of an event. It is an ongoing process which occurs throughout the event. During the planning stage everything to do with the event is monitored and if any problems appear, adjustments have to be made. It is through this process that the event is finally stage and organized to meet the objectives of the event. **The opportunity to review and evaluate the event is important as a learning exercise. If the event is to be stage again in the future it is an invaluable help as the thing that went well can be repeated and those things that were not too successful can be changed next time. GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR EVENTS BE PREPARED. As the Scout motto says! Good preparation is the foundation for a good event. If the team as a whole are well prepared this will set the tone for the event. BE CLEAR ABOUT YOUR OBJECTIVES. Make sure that the all team fully understand what is to be achieved by the staging of this event. If all team members are will informed, everyone will be working towards the same goal. WORKS AS A TEAM. Any good team builds on the strength of its members and is supportive and helpful to each other. To operate effectively the team should meet on a regular basis and be able to communicate with each other with relative and be able to communicate with each other with relative ease. A good team has a good team leader at its front. This team leader should be a good motivator who can generate enthusiasm and perseverance. REMEMBER CUSTOMER CARE. A smile of welcome costs nothing and will affect the way visitors feel about the event. Remember, even if your stand/ job in the event isn’t very busy do not sir around looking bored and uninterested – this is sure to put potential clients off. Try to be alert, ready for action and enthusiastic at all times. If clients enjoy the event they will come back and tell their friends. BE RECOGNIZABLE. More and more teams in organizations are adopting their own uniforms. These help the visitors as it makes the staff immediately recognizable from the clients. When you stage an event you should consider adopting a uniform for all the staff involved in the event. This does not have to be complicated or expensive . For example, the team may decide to wear black trousers and a white T-shirt. These are items of clothing that most people have in their wardrobes. Plain colored T-shirts are relatively inexpensive to purchase. You may have the name of your event on the front, or local screen printer would do this at a small cost. This creates a good image for the visitors of the event and is something the rest of the team can keep to remind them of the event in the future. KEEP TO SCHEDULES. Reliability, both within the team and within the event itself, sis important. The team should make sure the all deadlines are met if it is at all possible to do so. Punctuality should be important for all team meetings etc. If someone is always late for a meeting it is unsurprising that other team members act on their knowledge and turn up, not at the start time of befo

The Ethical use of cell phones

The morals and values combine to form ethics, technology and the changes it brings in todays society, the effect of cell phones, the different use of the cell phone, and who can use their cell phones in the nursing homes. Ethics describes a system of morals that are studied, recommended, and accepted by society. These unwritten rules, made up of morals and values combine to form ethics. If something is ethical, it falls within the realm of behavior that society prefers.The unethical uses of the cell phones in the nursing homes workers are hose behaviors that society deems right when on the cell phone it is a combination of laws, manners and common sense. Camera phones can be a difficult privacy issue. ( http://www. ehow. com/about_5165198_ethical- uses-cell-phones. html) daily basis. The use of the cell phones has the biggest affect in this country. People either use it to communicate or even surf the web, to find various information that they are trying to inquire about.This is one use of technology is how people keep up with stocks, education, paying bills, knowing what is going on with their Job, and maintaining their busy schedules. Using this type of technology can help you to stay on top of your entire task and agendas and still stay in communication. Cell phones are the way many people communicate in the world. We use this device to keep in touch with our love ones when they are near or far away. With cell phones you can communicate with people Just about anywhere in the world.You have options of paying your bills, checking the weather; surf the internet. Use the built-in calculator for simple math, send or receive e-mail, play games, watch TV, send text messages, and last but not least keep track of all appointments, and set reminders when they are needed. So the corporation state that the use of the camera violate the HIPPA program, so they should ban cell phones because of the camera, and sound recorder functions? Next we ban cameras, sound recorders, telephones, and even Laptops. How about electric lights and hot tap water?Maybe we should ban pencils, pens, and paper so we can't write anything on our hands that we can take out of the building? Just like how the doctors' know when and where to use their cell phone, so do the direct care staff. It's not the technology, it's the users. I think a few of us have commented on the very valid point that the perpetrators were in violation f several laws and the ethical standards of the profession. Let's see them get the punishment they have earned. But misusing a tool won't stop by removing the tool; there always will be substitutes.Perhaps not having a phone in your hand was a luxury a few years ago, but today, it's expected. I will not answer personal calls and really I don't believe that personal calls to staff of any kind (yes, I do mean the sick family members, the kids in school, and the spouses stuck in traffic) should be validated (http://allnurses. com/nursing- news/lawmakers-c urb-cell-392956-page3. html) These cell phones come in all shapes, olors, and sizes for our personal use. The cell phones are in such demand for this nation because they are very convenient.

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier

Daniel Rutherford Jacobus Henricus Walther Hermann Nernst Reinhold Benesch & Ruth Erica Benesch Find How Oxygen is Transported in Human Body Frederick Soddy Artturi Ilmari Virtanen Louis Jacques Thenard discovers hydrogen peroxide Jbir ibn Hayyn Ya'qub Al-Kindi Paul Karrer Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier Few things are as important as water, which we know is made of oxygen and hydrogen. Did you know that Antoine Lavoisier was the discoverer of both elements? Contributions to Science Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier is one of the most important scientists in the history of chemistry.He discovered elements, formulated a basic law of chemistry and helped create the metric system. During his time, people believed that when an object burns, a mysterious substance called ‘phlogiston’ was released. This was called the ‘phlogiston theory’. Lavoisier’s experiments demonstrated the contrary, i. e. when something burned, it actually absorbed something from the air, ins tead of releasing anything. He later named the ‘something’ from the air as oxygen, when he found that it combined with other chemicals to form acid. (In Greek, ‘oxy’ means sharp, referring to the sharp taste of acids. Henry Cavendish had earlier isolated hydrogen, but he called it inflammable air. Lavoisier showed that this inflammable air burned to form a colourless liquid, which turned out to be water. The Greek word for water is ‘hydro’, so the air that burned to form water was hydrogen! Lavoisier was known for his painstaking attention to detail. Whenever he made a chemical reaction, he weighed all the substances carefully before and after the reaction. He discovered that in a chemical reaction, though substances may change their chemical nature, their total mass remains the same.This is called the law of conservation of mass. His love for accuracy led to the formulation of the metric system of weights and measures – which is still i n use today. Lavoisier’s attention to detail and habit of recording everything is perhaps his most important contribution – for that is now the way science is done. Biography Lavoiser was born on 26 August 1743 in a wealthy Parisian family. He studied at the College Mazarin from 1754 to 1761. His interest in chemistry was developed as he read the works of Etienne Condillac.In 1769, he set about making a geological map of France, which was important for that country’s industrial development. In 1769, he took a government position as a tax collector in the government of King Louis XVI. In 1771, he married Marie-Anne Pierette Paulze, who is considered as an eminent scientist in her own right. She translated the works of many scientists from English and German into French, and later on, with her husband, published the Traite elementaire de chimie, often considered the first comprehensive book on the subject.In 1789, King Louis XVI was overthrown in the French Revolu tion. As Lavoisier had been a tax collector, he earned the wrath of the revolutionaries, who executed him on 8 May 1794. SOURCE: http://humantouchofchemistry. com/antoinelaurent-de-lavoisier. htm Elements and Atoms: Chapter 3 Lavoisier's Elements of Chemistry Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794) has been called the founder of modern chemistry. (View a portrait of Mme. & M. Lavoisier by Jacque-Louis David at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Among his important contributions were the application of the balance and the principle of conservation of mass to chemistry, the explanation of combustion and respiration in terms of combination with oxygen rather than loss of phlogiston (See chapter 5. ), and a reform of chemical nomenclature. His Traite Elementaire de Chimie (1789), from which the present extract is taken in a contemporary translation, was a tremendously influential synthesis of his work. Lavoisier was a public servant as well as a scientist.Under the French monarchy, he was a member of the tax-collecting agency, the Ferme Generale. His work for the government included advocating rational agricultural methods and improving the manufacture of gunpowder. His service to France continued during the Revolution. He was an alternate deputy of the reconvened Estates-General in 1789, and from 1790 served on a commission charged with making weights and measures uniform across France. A Parisian by birth, Lavoisier also died in Paris, guillotined with other former members of the Ferme Generale during the Reign of Terror in May 1794.The preface to his Traite Elementaire de Chimie is a fitting selection to follow Boyle's The Sceptical Chymist because it includes the definition of element that was to dominate chemistry throughout the next century, and which is still familiar in our own day. In addition, Lavoisier's musings on the connection between science and the language which conveys its ideas remain thought-provoking, particularly in light of the writings of Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and Alfred Ayer in the first half of the 20th century.Even his comments about the pedagogy of introductory chemistry take sides in a debate that remains current. Antoine Lavoisier, Preface to Elements of Chemistry translation by Robert Kerr (Edinburgh, 1790), pp. xiii-xxxvii When I began the following Work, my only object was to extend and explain more fully the Memoir which I read at the public meeting of the Academy of Science in the month of April 1787, on the necessity of reforming and completing the Nomenclature of Chemistry[1].While engaged in this employment, I perceived, better than I had ever done before, the justice of the following maxims of the Abbe de Condillac[2], in his System of Logic, and some other of his works. â€Å"We think only through the medium of words. –Languages are true analytical methods. –Algebra, which is adapted to its purpose in every species of expression, in the most simple, most exact, and best manner possible, is at the same time a language and an analytical method. –The art of reasoning is nothing more than a language well arranged. † Thus, while I thought myself employed only in forming a Nomenclature, and while I roposed to myself nothing more than to improve the chemical language, my work transformed itself by degrees, without my being able to prevent it, into a treatise upon the Elements of Chemistry. The impossibility of separating the nomenclature of a science from the science itself, is owing to this, that every branch of physical science must consist of three things; the series of facts which are the objects of the science, the ideas which represent these facts, and the words by which these ideas are expressed. Like three impressions of the same seal, the word ought to produce the idea, and the idea to be a picture of the fact.And, as ideas are preserved and communicated by means of words, it necessarily follows that we cannot improve the langua ge of any science without at the same time improving the science itself; neither can we, on the other hand, improve a science, without improving the language or nomenclature which belongs to it. However certain the facts of any science may be, and, however just the ideas we may have formed of these facts, we can only communicate false impressions to others, while we want words by which these may be properly expressed. 3] To those who will consider it with attention, the first part of this treatise will afford frequent proofs of the truth of the above observations. But as, in the conduct of my work, I have been obliged to observe an order of arrangement essentially differing from what has been adopted in any other chemical work yet published, it is proper that I should explain the motives which have led me to do so. It is a maxim universally admitted in geometry, and indeed in every branch of knowledge, that, in the progress of investigation, we should proceed from known facts to wha t is unknown.In early infancy, our ideas spring from our wants; the sensation of want excites the idea of the object by which it is to be gratified. In this manner, from a series of sensations, observations, and analyses, a successive train of ideas arises, so linked together, that an attentive observer may trace back to a certain point the order and connection of the whole sum of human knowledge. When we begin the study of any science, we are in a situation, respecting that science, similar to that of children; and the course by which we have to advance is precisely the same which Nature follows in the formation of their ideas.In a child, the idea is merely an effect produced by a sensation; and, in the same manner, in commencing the study of a physical science, we ought to form no idea but what is a necessary consequence, and immediate effect, of an experiment or observation. [4] Besides, he that enters upon the career of science, is in a less advantageous situation than a child w ho is acquiring his first ideas. To the child, Nature gives various means of rectifying any mistakes he may commit respecting the salutary or hurtful qualities of the objects which surround him.On every occasion his judgments are corrected by experience; want and pain are the necessary consequences arising from false judgment; gratification and pleasure are produced by judging aright. Under such masters, we cannot fail to become well informed; and we soon learn to reason justly, when want and pain are the necessary consequences of a contrary conduct. [5] In the study and practice of the sciences it is quite different; the false judgments we form neither affect our existence nor our welfare; and we are not forced by any physical necessity to correct them.Imagination, on the contrary, which is ever wandering beyond the bounds of truth, joined to self-love and that self-confidence we are so apt to indulge, prompt us to draw conclusions which are not immediately derived from facts; so t hat we become in some measure interested in deceiving ourselves. Hence it is by no means to be wondered, that, in the science of physics in general, men have often made suppositions, instead of forming conclusions.These suppositions, handed down from one age to another, acquire additional weight from the authorities by which they are supported, till at last they are received, even by men of genius, as fundamental truths. The only method of preventing such errors from taking place, and of correcting them when formed, is to restrain and simplify our reasoning as much as possible. This depends entirely upon ourselves, and the neglect of it is the only source of our mistakes. We must trust to nothing but facts: These are presented to us by Nature, and cannot deceive.We ought, in every instance, to submit our reasoning to the test of experiment, and never to search for truth but by the natural road of experiment and observation. Thus mathematicians obtain the solution of a problem by the mere arrangement of data, and by reducing their reasoning to such simple steps, to conclusions so very obvious, as never to lose sight of the evidence which guides them. [6] Thoroughly convinced of these truths, I have imposed upon myself, as a law, never to advance but from what is known to what is unknown; never to form any conclusion which is not an immediate consequence necessarily lowing from observation and experiment; and always to arrange the fact, and the conclusions which are drawn from them, in such an order as shall render it most easy for beginners in the study of chemistry thoroughly to understand them. Hence I have been obliged to depart from the usual order of courses of lectures and of treatises upon chemistry, which always assume the first principles of the science, as known, when the pupil or the reader should never be supposed to know them till they have been explained in subsequent lessons.In almost every instance, these begin by treating of the elements of mat ter, and by explaining the table of affinities[7], without considering, that, in so doing, they must bring the principal phenomena of chemistry into view at the very outset: They make use of terms which have not been defined, and suppose the science to be understood by the very persons they are only beginning to teach. 8] It ought likewise to be considered, that very little of chemistry can be learned in a first course, which is hardly sufficient to make the language of the science familiar to the ears, or the apparatus familiar to the eyes. It is almost impossible to become a chemist in less than three or four years of constant application. These inconveniencies are occasioned not so much by the nature of the subject, as by the method of teaching it; and, to avoid them, I was chiefly induced to adopt a new arrangement of chemistry, which appeared to me more consonant to the order of Nature.I acknowledge, however, that in thus endeavouring to avoid difficulties of one kind, I have f ound myself involved in others of a different species, some of which I have not been able to remove; but I am persuaded, that such as remain do not arise from the nature of the order I have adopted, but are rather consequences of the imperfection under which chemistry still labours.This science still has many chasms, which interrupt the series of facts, and often render it extremely difficult to reconcile them with each other: It has not, like the elements of geometry, the advantage of being a complete science, the parts of which are all closely connected together: Its actual progress, however, is so rapid, and the facts, under the modern doctrine, have assumed so happy an arrangement, that we have ground to hope, even in our own times, to see it approach near to the highest state of perfection of which it is susceptible. 9] The rigorous law from which I have never deviated, of forming no conclusions which are not fully warranted by experiment, and of never supplying the absence of facts, has prevented me from comprehending in this work the branch of chemistry which treats of affinities, although it is perhaps the best calculated of any part of chemistry for being reduced into a completely systematic body.Messrs Geoffroy, Gellert, Bergman, Scheele, De Morveau, Kirwan,[10] and many others, have collected a number of particular facts upon this subject, which only wait for a proper arrangement; but the principal data are still wanting, or, at least, those we have are either not sufficiently defined, or not sufficiently proved, to become the foundation upon which to build so very important a branch of chemistry.This science of affinities, or elective attractions, holds the same place with regard to the other branches of chemistry, as the higher or transcendental geometry does with respect to the simpler and elementary part; and I thought it improper to involve those simple and plain elements, which I flatter myself the greatest part of my readers will easily under stand, in the obscurities and difficulties which still attend that other very useful and necessary branch of chemical science. Perhaps a sentiment of self-love may, without my perceiving it, have given additional force to these reflections.Mr de Morveau is at present engaged in publishing the article Affinity in the Methodical Encyclopedia; and I had more reasons than one to decline entering upon a work in which he is employed. It will, no doubt, be a matter of surprise, that in a treatise upon the elements of chemistry, there should be no chapter on the constituent and elementary parts of matter; but I shall take occasion, in this place, to remark, that the fondness for reducing all the bodies in nature to three or four elements, proceeds from a prejudice which has descended to us from the Greek Philosophers.The notion of four elements, which, by the variety of their proportions, compose all the known substances in nature, is a mere hypothesis, assumed long before the first princip les of experimental philosophy or of chemistry had any existence. In those days, without possessing facts, they framed systems; while we, who have collected facts, seem determined to reject them, when they do not agree with our prejudices.The authority of these fathers of human philosophy still carry great weight, and there is reason to fear that it will even bear hard upon generations yet to come. [11] It is very remarkable, that, notwithstanding of the number of philosophical chemists who have supported the doctrine of the four elements, there is not one who has not been led by the evidence of facts to admit a greater number of elements into their theory.The first chemists that wrote after the revival of letters, considered sulphur and salt as elementary substances entering into the composition of a great number of substances; hence, instead of four, they admitted the existence of six elements. Beccher assumes the existence of three kinds of earth, from the combination of which, i n different proportions, he supposed all the varieties of metallic substances to be produced. Stahl gave a new modification to this system; and succeeding chemists have taken the liberty to make or to imagine changes and additions of a similar nature.All these chemists were carried along by the influence of the genius of the age in which they lived, which contented itself with assertions without proofs; or, at least, often admitted as proofs the slightest degrees of probability, unsupported by that strictly rigorous analysis required by modern philosophy. [12] All that can be said upon the number and nature of elements is, in my opinion, confined to discussions entirely of a metaphysical nature. The subject only furnishes us with indefinite problems, which may be solved in a thousand different ways, not one of which, in all probability, is consistent with nature.I shall therefore only add upon this subject, that if, by the term elements, we mean to express those simple and indivisib le atoms of which matter is composed, it is extremely probable we know nothing at all about them; but, if we apply the term elements, or principles of bodies, to express our idea of the last point which analysis is capable of reaching, we must admit, as elements, all the substances into which we are capable, by any means, to reduce bodies by decomposition. 13] Not that we are entitled to affirm, that these substances we consider as simple may not be compounded of two, or even of a greater number of principles; but, since these principles cannot be separated, or rather since we have not hitherto discovered the means of separating them, they act with regard to us as simple substances, and we ought never to suppose them compounded until experiment and observation has proved them to be so. 14] The foregoing reflections upon the progress of chemical ideas naturally apply to the words by which these ideas are to be expressed. Guided by the work which, in the year 1787, Messrs de Morveau, Berthollet, de Fourcroy, and I composed upon the Nomenclature of Chemistry, I have endeavoured, as much as possible, to denominate simple bodies by simple terms, and I was naturally led to name these first. 15] It will be recollected, that we were obliged to retain that name of any substance by which it had been long known in the world, and that in two cases only we took the liberty of making alterations; first, in the case of those which were but newly discovered, and had not yet obtained names, or at least which had been known but for a short time, and the names of which had not yet received the sanction of the public; and, secondly, when the names which had been adopted, whether by the ancients or the moderns, appeared to us to express evidently false ideas, when they confounded the substances, to which they were applied, with others possessed of different, or perhaps opposite qualities. We made no scruple, in this case, of substituting other names in their room, and the greatest number of these were borrowed from the Greek language. We endeavoured to frame them in such a manner as to express the most general and the most characteristic quality of the substances; and this was attended with the additional advantage both of assisting the memory of beginners, who find it difficult to remember a new word which has no meaning, and of accustoming them early to admit no word without connecting with it some determinate idea. 16] To those bodies which are formed by the union of several simple substances we gave new names, compounded in such a manner as the nature of the substances directed; but, as the number of double combinations is already very considerable, the only method by which we could avoid confusion, was to divide them into classes. In the natural order of ideas, the name of the class or genus is that which expresses a quality common to a great number of individuals: The name of the species, on the contrary, expresses a quality peculiar to certain individ uals only. [17] These distinctions are not, as some may imagine, merely metaphysical, but are established by Nature. A child,† says the Abbe de Condillac, â€Å"is taught to give the name tree to the first one which is pointed out to him. The next one he sees presents the same idea, and he gives it the same name. This he does likewise to a third and a fourth, till at last the word tree, which he first applied to an individual, comes to be employed by him as the name of a class or a genus, an abstract idea, which comprehends all trees in general. But, when he learns that all trees serve not the same purpose, that they do not all produce the same kind of fruit, he will soon learn to distinguish them by specific and particular names. † This is the logic of all the sciences, and is naturally applied of chemistry.The acids, for example, are compounded of two substances, of the order of those which we consider as simple; the one constitutes acidity, and is common to all acids , and, from this substance, the name of the class or the genus ought to be taken; the other is peculiar to each acid, and distinguishes it from the rest, and from this substance is to be taken the name of the species. But, in the greatest number of acids, the two constituent elements, the acidifying principle, and that which it acidifies, may exist in different proportions, constituting all the possible points of equilibrium or of saturation. This is the case in the sulphuric and the sulphurous acids; and these two states of the same acid we have marked by varying the termination of the specific name. Metallic substances which have been exposed to the joint action of the air and of fire, lose their metallic lustre, increase in weight, and assume an earthy appearance.In this state, like the acids, they are compounded of a principle which is common to all, and one which is peculiar to each. In the same way, therefore, we have thought proper to class them under a generic name, derived from the common principle; for which purpose, we adopted the term oxyd; and we distinguish them from each other by the particular name of the metal to which each belongs. [18] Combustible substances, which in acids and metallic oxyds are a specific and particular principle, are capable of becoming, in their turn, common principles of a great number of substances. The sulphurous combinations have been long the only known ones in this kind.Now, however, we know, from the experiments of Messrs Vandermonde, Monge, and Berthollet, that charcoal may be combined with iron, and perhaps with several other metals; and that, from this combination, according to the proportions, may be produced steel, plumbago, &c. [19] We know likewise, from the experiments of M. Pelletier, that phosphorus may be combined with a great number of metallic substances. These different combinations we have classed under generic names taken from the common substance, with a termination which marks this analogy, speci fying them by another name taken from that substance which is proper to each. The nomenclature of bodies compounded of three simple substances was attended with still greater difficulty, not only on account of their number, but, particularly, because we cannot express the nature of their constituent principles without employing more compound names.In the bodies which form this class, such as the neutral salts, for instance, we had to consider, 1st, The acidifying principle, which is common to them all; 2d, The acidifiable principle which constitutes their peculiar acid; 3d, The saline, earthy, or metallic basis, which determines the particular species of salt. Here we derived the name of each class of salts from the name of the acidifiable principle common to all the individuals of that class; and distinguished each species by the name of the saline, earthy, or metallic basis, which is peculiar to it. [20] A salt, though compounded of the same three principles, may, nevertheless, by the mere difference of their proportion, be in three different states.The nomenclature we have adopted would have been defective, had it not expressed these different states; and this we attained chiefly by changes of termination uniformly applied to the same state of the different salts. In short, we have advanced so far, that from the name alone may be instantly found what the combustible substance is which enters into any combination; whether that combustible substance be combined with the acidifying principle, and in what proportion; what is the state of the acid; with what basis it is united; whether the saturation be exact, or whether the acid or the basis be in excess. It may be easily supposed that it was not possible to attain all these different objects without departing, in some instances, from established custom, and adopting terms which at first sight will appear uncouth and barbarous.But we considered that the ear is soon habituated to new words, especially when they are connected with a general and rational system. The names, besides, which were formerly employed, such as powder of algaroth, salt of alembroth, pompholix, phagadenic water, turbith mineral, colcothar, and many others, were neither less barbarous nor less uncommon. [21] It required a great deal of practice, and no small degree of memory, to recollect the substances to which they were applied, much more to recollect the genus of combination to which they belonged. The names of oil of tartar per deliquium, oil of vitriol, butter of arsenic and of antimony, flowers of zinc, &c. ere still more improper, because they suggested false ideas: For, in the whole mineral kingdom, and particularly in the metallic class, there exists no such thing as butters, oils, or flowers; and, in short, the substances to which they give these fallacious names, are nothing less than rank poisons. [22] When we published our essay on the nomenclature of chemistry, we were reproached for having changed the la nguage which was spoken by our masters, which they distinguished by their authority, and handed down to us. But those who reproach us on this account, have forgotten that it was Bergman and Macquer themselves who urged us to make this reformation. In a letter which the learned Professor of Upsal, M. Bergman, wrote, a short time before he died, to M. de Morveau, he bids him spare no improper names; those who are learned, will always be learned, and those who are ignorant will thus learn sooner. 23] There is an objection to the work which I am going to present to the public, which is perhaps better founded, that I have given no account of the opinion of those who have gone before me; that I have stated only my own opinion, without examining that of others. By this I have been prevented from doing that justice to my associates, and more especially to foreign chemists, which I wished to render them. But I beseech the reader to consider, that, if I had filled an elementary work with a mu ltitude of quotations; if I had allowed myself to enter into long dissertations on the history of the science, and the works of those who have studied it, I must have lost sight of the true object I had in view, and produced a work, the reading of which must have been extremely tiresome to beginners.It is not to the history of the science, or of the human mind, that we are to attend in an elementary treatise:[24] Our only aim ought to be ease and perspicuity, and with the utmost care to keep every thing out of view which might draw aside the attention of the student; it is a road which we should be continually rendering more smooth, and from which we should endeavour to remove every obstacle which can occasion delay. The sciences, from their own nature, present a sufficient number of difficulties, though we add not those which are foreign to them. But, besides this, chemists will easily perceive, that, in the fist part of my work, I make very little use of any experiments but those which were made by myself: If at any time I have adopted, without acknowledgment, the experiments or the opinions of M. Berthollet, M. Fourcroy, M. de la Place, M.Monge, or, in general, of any of those whose principles are the same with my own, it is owing to the circumstance, that frequent intercourse, and the habit of communicating our ideas, our observations, and our way of thinking to each other, has established between us a sort of community of opinions, in which it is often difficult for every one to know his own. [25] The remarks I have made on the order which I thought myself obliged to follow in the arrangement of proofs and ideas, are to be applied only to the first part of this work. It is the only one which contains the general sum of the doctrine I have adopted, and to which I wished to give a form completely elementary. 26] The second part is composed chiefly of tables of the nomenclature of the neutral salts. To these I have only added general explanations, the object of which was to point out the most simple processes for obtaining the different kinds of known acids. This part contains nothing which I can call my own, and presents only a very short abridgment of the results of these processes, extracted from the works of different authors. In the third part, I have given a description, in detail, of all the operations connected with modern chemistry. I have long thought that a work of this kind was much wanted, and I am convinced it will not be without use.The method of performing experiments, and particularly those of modern chemistry, is not so generally known as it ought to be; and had I, in the different memoirs which I have presented to the Academy, been more particular in the detail of the manipulations of my experiments, it is probable I should have made myself better understood, and the science might have made a more rapid progress. The order of the different matters contained in this third part appeared to me to be almost arbitrary; an d the only one I have observed was to class together, in each of the chapters of which it is composed, those operations which are most connected with one another. I need hardly mention that this part could not be borrowed from any other work, and that, in the principal articles it contains, I could not derive assistance from any thing but the experiments which I have made myself.I shall conclude this preface by transcribing, literally, some observations of the Abbe de Condillac, which I think describe, with a good deal of truth, the state of chemistry at a period not far distant from our own. These observations were made on a different subject; but they will not, on this account, have less force, if the application of them be thought just. [27] â€Å"Instead of applying observation to the things we wished to know, we have chosen rather to imagine them. Advancing from one ill founded supposition to another, we have at last bewildered ourselves amidst a multitude of errors. These err ors becoming prejudices, are, of course, adopted as principles, and we thus bewilder ourselves more and more. The method, too, by which we conduct our reasonings is as absurd; we abuse words which we do not understand, and call this the art of reasoning.When matters have been brought this length, when errors have been thus accumulated, there is but one remedy by which order can be restored to the faculty of thinking; this is, to forget all that we have learned, to trace back our ideas to their source, to follow the train in which they rise, and, as my Lord Bacon says, to frame the human understanding anew. â€Å"This remedy becomes the more difficult in proportion as we think ourselves more learned. Might it not be thought that works which treated of the sciences with the utmost perspicuity, with great precision and order, must be understood by every body? The fact is, those who have never studied any thing will understand them better than those who have studied a great deal, and e specially those who have written a great deal. At the end of the fifth chapter, the Abbe de Condillac adds: â€Å"But, after all, the sciences have made progress, because philosophers have applied themselves with more attention to observe, and have communicated to their language that precision and accuracy which they have employed in their observations: In correcting their language they reason better. † Antoine Lavoisier, Table of Simple Substances in Elements of Chemistry translation by Robert Kerr (Edinburgh, 1790), pp. 175-6 Simple substances belonging to all the kingdoms of nature, which may be considered as the elements of bodies. New Names. | Correspondent old Names. | Light[28]| Light. | Caloric| Heat. | | Principle or element of heat. | | Fire. Igneous fluid. | Matter of fire and of heat. | Oxygen[29]| Depholgisticated air. | | Empyreal air. | | Vital air, or | | Base of vital air. | Azote[30]| Phlogisticated air or gas. | | Mephitis, or its base. | Hydrogen[31]| Infl ammable air or gas, | | or the base of inflammable air. | Oxydable[32] and Acidifiable simple Substances not Metallic. New Names. | Correspondent old names. | Sulphur| The same names. | Phosphorus | | Charcoal | | Muriatic radical[33]| Still unknown. | Fluoric radical | | Boracic radical| | Oxydable and Acidifiable simple Metallic Bodies. New Names. | Correspondent Old Names. | Antimony| Regulus[34] of| Antimony. | Arsenic| † â€Å"| Arsenic |Bismuth| † â€Å"| Bismuth | Cobalt| † â€Å"| Cobalt | Copper| † â€Å"| Copper | Gold| † â€Å"| Gold | Iron| † â€Å"| Iron | Lead| † â€Å"| Lead | Manganese| † â€Å"| Manganese | Mercury| † â€Å"| Mercury | Molybdena[35]| † â€Å"| Molybdena | Nickel| † â€Å"| Nickel | Platina| † â€Å"| Platina | Silver| † â€Å"| Silver | Tin| † â€Å"| Tin | Tungstein[36]| † â€Å"| Tungstein | Zinc| † â€Å"| Zinc| Salifiable simple Earthy Substances[37] New Names. | Correspondent Old Names. | Lime| Chalk, calcareous earth. | | Quicklime. | Magnesia| Magnesia, base of Epsom salt. | | Calcined or caustic magnesia. | Barytes| Barytes, or heavy earth. | Argill| Clay, earth of alum. | Silex| Siliceous or vitrifiable earth. |Notes [1]Lavoisier read â€Å"Methode de Nomenclature Chimique† before the French Academy on 18 April 1787. This outline for a reformulation of chemical nomenclature was prepared by Lavoisier and three of his early converts to the oxygen theory of combustion, Louis Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude Louis Berthollet, and Antoine Francois de Fourcroy. De Morveau had already argued for a reformed nomenclature, and he developed the April 1787 outline in a memoir read to the Academy on 2 May 1787. [Leicester & Klickstein 1952] [2]Etienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715-1780) was a French philosopher and associate of Rousseau, Diderot, and the Encyclopedists.His La Logique (1780) stressed the importance of language as a tool in scientific and logical reasoning. [3]Lavoisier makes an excellent point, but he overstates it. Clearly ones ideas are not strictly limited or determined by one's language. New ideas must exist before new terms can be coined to express those ideas; thus new ideas can be formed and even to some extent described under the sway of older language. Also, new terms can only be defined by reference to pre-existing terms. Sometimes new terms are not necessary, as old terms absorb new meanings. For example, I hope that the selections in this book show to some extent how the terms â€Å"atom† and â€Å"element† have changed in meaning over time.Having made these points, I do not wish to minimize the ability of new terminology to help the mind to run along the path of new insights, or to prevent it from falling into old misconceptions. [4]Note that Lavoisier does not say merely that we ought not believe any idea but what follows immediately and necessarily f rom experiment, we ought not even form the idea. This statement shows a wariness of hypotheses common to many early scientists and natural philosophers. Compare Newton's, â€Å"I frame no hypotheses; for †¦ hypotheses †¦ have no place in experimental philosophy. † [in Bartlett 1980] Hypotheses had no part in the empirical methodology of Francis Bacon (1561-1626; see portrait at National Portrait Gallery, London), which emphasized collection and classification of facts. This aversion to hypotheses is too not urprising if one considers that empiricists were attempting to distance themselves from rationalism. Later formulations of the scientific method, however, acknowledge the utility of hypotheses, always treated as provisional, in both suggesting experiments and interpreting them. [5]Lavoisier was not the last to observe that children are born scientists who learn by experience. [6]Lavoisier's choice of mathematics as an example may strike a modern reader as odd. Wh ile mathematics has long served as an example of the kind of certainty to which scientists aspire (â€Å"mathematical certainty†), it is now seen as based on axioms, not empirically based.Such mathematical systems as non-Euclidean geometry, which seemed to disagree with observed reality, had not yet been constructed at the time of Lavoisier's writing, though. [7]A table of affinities was a summary of a great deal of information on chemical reactions. It lists what substances react chemically with a given substance, often in order of the vigor or extent of the reaction. (If substance A reacted more strongly than substance B with a given material, then substance A was said to have a greater affinity than B for that material. ) View a table of affinities by Etienne-Francois Geoffroy (1672-1731). [8]In Lavoisier's mind, it makes no sense to jump to this summary table without first describing the various substances and their characteristic reactions.The proper role of descriptive chemistry in the chemical curriculum continues to be a topic of debate in chemical education. Apparently Lavoisier would be quite sympathetic to the charge that introductory courses emphasize unifying principles at the expense of descriptive chemistry. [9]This is certainly an optimistic statement! Two hundred years later chemistry has developed to an extent Lavoisier could not have imagined, yet it is a rare and foolish chemist who expects the science to exhaust its possibilities for discovery within a lifetime. [10]Bergman, Scheele, De Morveau, and Kirwan were all contemporaries of Lavoisier. The Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele had a hand in the discovery of oxygen, chlorine, and manganese.The Swedish chemist and mineralogist Torbern Bergman made contributions to analytical chemistry and the classification of minerals. Richard Kirwan was an Irish chemist and a defender of the phlogiston theory. [11]The influence of the ancients was on the decline when Lavoisier wrote these wor ds, but he does not exaggerate the importance of their thought. Remember that he is still concerned about their influence more than a century after The Sceptical Chymist and more than two millennia after the death of Aristotle. (See chapters 1 and 2. ) The simplicity of ancient ideas of matter would continue to have an influence on chemists well after Lavoisier's time, particularly as the number of chemical elements grew. (See chapter 10. [12]Johann Joachim Becher (1635-1682) and Georg Ernst Stahl (1660-1734) were the two men most closely associated with the phlogiston theory. Lavoisier was largely responsible for dislodging and discrediting the notion that combustion and respiration involved a loss of a subtle material called phlogiston. (See chapter 5. ) Lavoisier makes light of their ideas here, but the theory, though incorrect, was not as nonsensical as it may now appear. [13]Notice the pragmatism of Lavoisier's approach: he suggests, in essence, forgetting about the ultimate bu ilding blocks of matter. This was a prudent recommendation, for he had no way of addressing that subject empirically (which is why he dismisses it as metaphysical).He continues by suggesting that chemists turn their attention to what they can observe empirically, the ultimate products of chemical analysis. The definition of an element as a body which cannot be broken down further by chemical analysis is an operational one: as the techniques of chemical analysis improved, then substances scientists had any right to regard as elements could change. At first, this definition of element appears to be similar to that of Boyle. (See chapter 2, note 9. ) However, Boyle seemed not to consider elementary substances which were not components of all compound matter. [14]Lavoisier's table of simple bodies, reproduced below the preface, follows this prescription approximately, but not exactly. See note 33 below. ) [15]See note 34 below on names of metals. [16]Thus, where possible the name of a c hemical substance should not simply be an arbitrary word, but should give some information about the substance. This principle is particularly evident in the modern systematic nomenclature of organic compounds: the name enables one who knows the rules of nomenclature and some organic chemistry to draw the structural formula of a compound from its name. (See IUPAC 1979, 1993. ) The principle is also evident in the nomenclature of inorganic compounds [IUPAC 1971], the class of compounds Lavoisier's nomenclature primarily addresses. It is least vident in modern names of the elements, many of which are named after important scientists (e. g. curium, mendelevium, rutherfordium) or places important to the discoverers (e. g. polonium). (See Ringnes 1989 for etymology of elements' names. ) Ironically, Lavoisier coined the name for an element central to his contributions to chemistry, a name of Greek origin chosen to convey information about the element which turned out to be incorrect. The name â€Å"oxygen† means â€Å"acid former,† for Lavoisier believed that oxygen was a component of all acids. [17]Already we see the close connection Lavoisier envisioned between the language of chemistry and the content of the science.The system of naming compounds depends on classifying those compounds. Compounds belonging to the same class would have similar names. The name would also reflect the chemical composition of the substance. [18]So the classes of compounds included acids, oxides, sulfides, and the like. To specify which acid, a particular name was added, e. g. nitrous acid. Different suffixes distinguished between similar particular names (such as sulfuric and sulfurous–the -ic suffix applying to the more highly oxidized form). [19]What Lavoisier has in mind is a class of materials now called carbides, inorganic compounds of a metal and carbon (â€Å"charcoal†). But the examples he gives are not carbides.Steel is an alloy (a mixture or soluti on of metals, and therefore not a chemical compound of definite proportions); in particular, steel is principally iron with some carbon and sometimes other metals (such as chromium or manganese). Although plumbago has been used to refer to a variety of lead-containing substances (as might be guessed from the root plumb-), it also (as here) refers to the substance now called graphite, the form of carbon commonly used for pencil â€Å"leads. † [20]Again in the case of salts we see the nomenclature embodying the principles of the chemical theory of the day. A salt was seen as a compound of an acid and a base, and an acid itself a compound of an acidifiable part and an acidifying part.The acidifying part, whatever its nature, was believed to be common to all acids; since it would not distinguish one salt from another, it does not appear in the name of the salt. The salts, then, carry the name of the acidifiable piece and the base with which it combines. [21]Pompholix was a crude (i. e. , not very pure) zinc oxide (ZnO), sometimes known by the more pleasant but hardly more informative name flowers of zinc. Phagadenic water was a corrosive liquid used to cleanse ulcers; phagadenic refers to a spreading or â€Å"eating† ulcer. Colcothar is a brownish-red mixture containing primarily ferric oxide (Fe2O3) with some calcium sulfate (CaSO4). [Oxford 1971] [22]Oil of vitriol is sulfuric acid, a viscous liquid.Butter of arsenic (arsenic trichloride) is an oily liquid; and butter of antimony (antimony trichloride) is a colorless deliquescent solid. In one sense, these names are informative, for they suggest the physical appearance of the substances they name; they are, however, also misleading in the sense Lavoisier points out. [23]Lavoisier recognizes that even the most rationally designed nomenclature would be useless if chemists chose not to use it. A language is one of the most visible signs of a people and culture; naturally, efforts to tamper with it can meet with disapproval. Thus Lavoisier pays at least nominal attention to aesthetic and cultural considerations, noting just above that the new terms sound no more â€Å"barbarous† than some technical terms then in existence.In a similar vein, he makes a concession to linguistic conservatism still further above, where he indicates that he does not propose to displace familiar names, at least for elements. And here he concedes that one ought not lightly to tamper with language, but that in doing so he is responding to a need and a demand. [24]Chemistry curricula in general devote little time to the history of the science, and that little usually consists of anecdotes scattered among other material. Discoverers of laws and elements may be mentioned; the pathways of discovery, however, let alone false steps on those pathways, almost never are. (See, however, Giunta 2001. In my opinion, the teaching of scientific process (as opposed to content) suffers as a result. The emphasis o n current content to the exclusion of historical material, however, itself has a long history and such distinguished advocates as Lavoisier. [25]The standards for crediting others for their ideas, particularly when they are similar to one's own, were not as stringent in Lavoisier's time as in our own. And yet Lavoisier was criticized even by contemporaries for failing to give what they believed to be sufficient credit. For instance, Joseph Priestley did not believe Lavoisier gave him sufficient credit for the discovery of â€Å"dephlogisticated air† (oxygen) when he described his own similar experiments [Conant 1957].And Lavoisier's failure to credit James Watt and Henry Cavendish for their insights into the compound nature of water were a part of the sometimes rancorous â€Å"water controversy† [Ihde 1964]. See chapters 4 and 6 for articles on these subjects. [26]The first part of the treatise deals with gases, caloric, and the combustion of elements, so it truly cont ains the work most closely associated with Lavoisier. [27]Indeed, these words, which advocate empirical observation over rationalism as the source of reliable knowledge, apply to any science. [28]Light and caloric are not found on modern tables of elements because they are even matter, let alone elements of material bodies.Although a wave theory of light had been proposed by this time (by Christiaan Huygens), Newton's corpuscular (particle) theory was widely accepted until the 19th century. Similarly, until the 19th century, heat was widely believed to be a material, a fluid which flowed out of hot bodies and into cold ones (even though mechanical theories of heat with a Newtonian pedigree also existed at this time). See chapter 5, note 17 for a description of Lavoisier's thinking about heat and fire. ) [29]As mentioned above, the name oxygen means â€Å"acid former,† for Lavoisier believed (incorrectly) that oxygen was a component of all acids. Oxygen was a relatively recent ly discovered substance, and it did not have a standard name.The various names used for it are descriptive, but clumsy. â€Å"Dephlogisticated air† is particularly objectionable, for it described oxygen in terms of the phlogistion theory, which Lavoisier was in the process discrediting. [30]The name azote and the current name nitrogen were both used in English from the time of Lavoisier into the 19th century. Azote means â€Å"lifeless,† for breathing nitrogen does not sustain life. [31]Hydrogen means â€Å"water former,† for water results from the burning of hydrogen. (See chapter 6. ) Hydrogen was one of several gases discovered in the 18th century. The names then in use for it were informative, denoting its flammability. [32]I. e. substances which can be oxidized (combined with oxygen). [33]These three radicals or â€Å"roots† had not yet been isolated or properly characterized. The fluoric radical, now called fluorine, is the root of fluorspar and oth er fluorine-containing minerals. Fluorine is very difficult to separate from its compounds, and is a very reactive and dangerous gas in its elemental form. This gas was not isolated until 1886. The boracic radical, now called boron, is the root of the mineral borax (Na2B4O7); boron was not isolated until 1808. [Weeks & Leicester, 1968] Muriatic acid was the name then in use for what we call hydrochloric acid or hydrogen chloride, HCl.Chlorine, the element which distinguishes this acid from others, was discovered by Carl Wilhelm Scheele; however, he named it oxymuriatic acid, believing it to be a compound containing oxygen. Muriatic radical, then, was the name for the hypothetical element believed to be combined with oxygen in oxymuriatic acid. Muriatic, by the way, means â€Å"pertaining to †¦ brine or salt† [Oxford 1971]; the salt of muriatic acid is common table salt, sodium chloride (NaCl). Lavoisier had good reason to expect that these radicals would be isolated, for their compounds had been known for a long time; however, the fluoric and boracic radicals were, strictly speaking, hypothetical substances at this time, and the basis of muriatic acid had already been isolated but he did not recognize it as elementary.Had he kept strictly to the principle of considering a substance an element if it could not be further decomposed, then Lavoisier should also have included â€Å"oxymuriatic acid† (undoubtedly by a different name) among the elements; as it was, chlorine was named and recognized to be elementary only in 1810 [Davy 1810, 1811]. Although we can see, with hindsight, that Lavoisier was incorrect, it was by no means obvious at the time. Chlorine had been prepared from reactions with substances that do contain oxygen, for example from pyrolusite (MnO2) in Scheele's original isolation and from aqueous muriatic acid (HCl). [34]Until the phlogiston theory was discarded, metals were commonly regarded as compounds of their minerals ( "earths†) and phlogiston. This idea was incorrect, but it seemed to make sense, for the earths or ores seemed to be more fundamental than the metals.After all, the earths were found readily in nature, but to obtain the metals one had to heat the earths strongly in the presence of charcoal. In any event, the metal came to be known as the regulus of the mineral; for example, the name antimony was originally applied to an antimony sulfide, Sb2S3, and the metal was called regulus of antimony. Lavoisier drops the term regulus, giving the simple body (the metal) the simple, unmodified term. [35]The element is now known as molybdenum. Similarly Lavoisier's platina is now called platinum. The ending is important: the -um ending now denotes a metal, while the -a ending denotes an oxide of that metal. [36]Now tungsten. [37]All of these â€Å"earthy substances† proved to be compounds.Their elements were first isolated in the early 19th century. Of course, Lavoisier was justified i n including them among his elements, for none of them had yet been broken down into anything simpler. Two interesting omissions from this table are soda and potash, comounds of sodium and potassium known since antiquity but whose elementary metals had not yet been extracted. One might have expected Lavoisier to list such substances either here or with the hypothesized radicals (note 33). Chalk frequently refered to calcium carbonate (CaCO3), but apparently it was also used for calcium oxide [Oxford 1971]. Magnesia is magnesium oxide, MgO. (See note 35. Epsom salt is magnesium sulfate, MgSO4, so named for the location (an English town) of a mineral spring from which the salt was obtained. Barytes is barium oxide, BaO. Argill or argil is an aluminum-containing potters' clay. Alum is a transparent aluminum-containing mineral, AlK(SO4)2. 12H2O. Humphry Davy was the first to isolate calcium, magnesium, barium, [Davy 1808b] sodium, and potassium [Davy 1808a]; he was also a co-discoverer o f boron [Davy 1809] and he recognized chlorine to be an element (note 34). Vitrifiable means able to be made into glass; indeed, common glass is mainly silicon dioxide. [Weeks & Leicester 1968] Source: http://web. lemoyne. edu/~giunta/ea/lavprefann. html Antoine-Laurent LavoisierAntoine-Laurent Lavoisier. Line engraving by Louis Jean Desire Delaistre, after a design by Julien Leopold Boilly. Courtesy Blocker History of Medicine Collections, Moody Medical Library, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas. The son of a wealthy Parisian lawyer, Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743–1794) completed a law degree in accordance with family wishes. His real interest, however, was in science, which he pursued with passion while leading a full public life. On the basis of his earliest scientific work, mostly in geology, he was elected in 1768—at the early age of 25—to the Academy of Sciences, France’s most elite scientific society.In the same year he bought i nto the Ferme Generale, the private corporation that collected taxes for the Crown on a profit-and-loss basis. A few years later he married the daughter of another tax farmer, Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, who was not quite 14 at the time. Madame Lavoisier prepared herself to be her husband’s scientific collaborator by learning English to translate the work of British chemists like Joseph Priestley and by studying art and engraving to illustrate Antoine-Laurent’s scientific experiments. In 1775 Lavoisier was appointed a commissioner of the Royal Gunpowder and Saltpeter Administration and took up residence in the Paris Arsenal.There he equipped a fine laboratory, which attracted young chemists from all over Europe to learn about the â€Å"Chemical Revolution† then in progress. He meanwhile succeeded in producing more and better gunpowder by increasing the supply and ensuring the purity of the constituents—saltpeter (potassium nitrate), sulfur, and charcoalà ¢â‚¬â€as well as by improving the methods of granulating the powder. Characteristic of Lavoisier’s chemistry was his systematic determination of the weights of reagents and products involved in chemical reactions, including the gaseous components, and his underlying belief that matter—identified by weight—would be conserved through any reaction (the law of conservation of mass).Among his contributions to chemistry associated with this method were the understanding of combustion and respiration as caused by chemical reactions with the part of the air (as discovered by Priestley) that he named â€Å"oxygen,† and his definitive proof by composition and decomposition that water is made up of oxygen and hydrogen. His giving new names to substances—most of which are still used today—was an important means of forwarding the Chemical Revolution, because these terms expressed the theory behind them. In the case of oxygen, from the Greek meaning â₠¬Å"acid-former,† Lavoisier expressed his theory that oxygen was the acidifying principle. He considered 33 substances as elements—by his definition, substances that chemical analyses had failed to break down into simpler entities.Ironically, considering his opposition to phlogiston (see Priestley), among these substances was caloric, the unweighable substance of heat, and possibly light, that caused other substances to expand when it was added to them. To propagate his ideas, in 1789 he published a textbook, Traite Elementaire de chimie, and began a journal, Annales de Chimie, which carried research reports about the new chemistry almost exclusively. Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier conducts an experiment on human respiration in this drawing made by his wife, who depicted herself at the table on the far right. Courtesy Edgar Fahs Smith Memorial Collection, Department of Special Collections, University of Pennsylvania Library.A political and social liberal, Lavoisier took an ac tive part in the events leading to the French Revolution, and in its early years he drew up plans and reports advocating many reforms, including the establishment of the metric system of weights and measures. Despite his eminence and his services to science and France, he came under attack as a former farmer-general of taxes and was guillotined in 1794. A noted mathematician, Joseph-Louis Lagrange, remarked of this event, â€Å"It took them only an instant to cut off that head, and a hundred years may not produce another like it. † Source: http://www. chemheritage. org/discover/online-resources/chemistry-in-history/themes/early-chemistry-and-gases/lavoisier. aspx Others: http://preparatorychemistry. com/Bishop_nomenclature_help. htm

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Commercialisation Plan for Nano Tube Solar Panels Technology. It is one of the assignments for Innovation Management Topic - Research Paper Example Many devices have been developed for this from the ancient times itself; one of them is the solar panels, which is used to capture and convert solar energy into thermal energy. But the key challenge in solar panel technology is the identification of efficient and cost effective method to convert, store and use solar energy. This has encouraged the development of Nano Tube Solar Panels. It advanced solution to energy requirements, that too in a cost effective manner with a greater efficiency. Earlier silicon panels were used which used highly doped p-n junction in between two pure silicon crystals to form the panel. This panel was so difficult to make as it requires semi conducting material which is highly doped with phosphorous or arsenic to give its character and it should be grown between two pure silicon crystals at high temperature. This manufacturing process is very costly as well involves many risks. Also this type of panels has very high payback time and very short life span T here is a wide need for a change in the source of energy for public and private requirements. Government announces some energy conservation plans, of which one of them was â€Å"non conventional energy sources like recovering energy like solar energy should be used for lighting at public places like street lights traffic etc† (Jain 2009, p. 254). ... Carbon nano tubes are intrinsic p-type semi conducting material, usually made of titanium dioxide nano particles or rolled up sheet of graphene. Unlike in earlier version, in which sunlight is converted into electrons and utilized as electric current, here sunlight is made into nano particles, which can increase the efficiency by a larger means. According to Nanowelded Carbon Nanotubes: From Field-Effect Transistors to Solar Microcells Chongjin Chen, Yafei Zhang nanotubes are prepared by depositing organic films containing SWNTs on to a glass substrates coated with indium-tin oxide (ITO).As a final mix a sandwich configuration is made as Aluminum electrodes were thermally evaporated under vacuum to form a sandwich configuration. Because of the interaction of the carbon nanotubes with the polymer poly (3-octylthiophene) (P3OT), excitons generated by the light in the polymer allow charge separation of the photogenerated excitons in the polymer and efficient electron transport to the el ectrode through the nanotubes. The electrons travel through the entire nanotubes and then hop or tunnel to the next nanotubes. As a result of which electron mobility increases and balances the charge carrier transport to the electrodes. Here the composite’s conductivity is also increased by a factor of 10. This process can increase the photovoltaic performance, by increasing the photocurrent by more than two orders of magnitude and doubling the open circuit voltage. â€Å"Scientists now have a much better understanding of the complex interplay between the electronic and physical interaction polymer, and the fullerene component can assist in the design of the next generation of optimized organic solar cells† (Lau